The Distinction Between Classical, Ecclesiastical, and Vulgar Latin

Most people hear the word "Latin" and imagine a single, unified language. But is it really? Well, yes, at its core, Latin is one language, but there's more to it than meets the eye. When scholars refer to Classical Latin, Ecclesiastical Latin, and Vulgar Latin, they're referring to three distinct versions of Latin that were used in different settings. Classical Latin is the standard form that students typically learn. This is the Latin of Cicero, Vergil, and Caesar. Classical Latin was the language of the educated elite. Vulgar Latin refers to the everyday, spoken language used by the people -- farmers, soldiers, and slaves. Ecclesiastical Latin (also referred to as "Church Latin" or "Liturgical Latin") was the form adopted by the Church for theological discussion. While they share the same grammatical frameworks, they differ in pronunciation and purpose.

All languages shift over time. That's the beauty of languages. They aren't fixed -- they evolve with the cultures around them. Latin makes this principle especially clear, as its stages are so well preserved. It's a living record of how a singular language can adapt.

Pronunciation

In Classical Latin, the sounds were precise. Consonants were crisp -- Caesar was pronounced "Kai-sar," not "See-sar." Over time, the speech patterns shifted. In Vulgar Latin, diphthongs collapsed and consonants softened. This is part of the reason why the Latin word for sky, caeulum, evolved into the Italian word, cielo -- the spoken "ae" diphthong shifted toward "e." Centuries after, Ecclesiastical Latin adopted a pronunciation more akin to that of modern Italian. "C" before "e" or "i" became "ch" instead. "G" was softened before front vowels. The pronunciation of Ecclesiastical Latin reflected the sounds of the world around it. Instead of "Kai-sar," he would now be called "Che-sar."

Grammar and Vocabulary

As Rome's influence shifted, so did its language. In Vulgar Latin, the complex case system eventually simplified. The 6-7 cases of Classical Latin -- nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative, and technically the locative case (although it was largely obsolete by the Classical period) -- were reduced, with the vocative being lost and the accusative merging with the ablative. Keep in mind that the exact number of cases in Vulgar Latin is debated, and most of what is here comes from what reconstructions can tell us. Interestingly, the Classical ablative case that we know of now combined the functions of three Proto-Indo-European cases: the locative (expressing location), the instrumental (expressing the means by which an action is performed), and the original ablative (expressing motion away from). As case endings simplified over time and became increasingly similar, speakers began to adopt prepositions to show the relationship between words and clear up any ambiguity.

Ecclesiastical Latin preserved the grammar of Classical Latin but added new meaning. Many words were adopted directly from Greek into Latin, especially for theological concepts. Calques, or loan translations, from Greek to Ecclesiastical Latin, were word-for-word (or verbum pro verbo) translations that translated Greek phrases into Latin by translating the components of the word into Latin rather than borrowing the words directly. For example, the Greek epoikodoméō, meaning "to build upon," became superaedificare (super meaning "above" or "upon," and aedificare meaning "to build"). Standardization When Rome fell, the Latin language fractured. During the Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th-9th centuries CE, Alcuin of York helped to unify Latin again. Under Charlemagne, he reformed Latin education and established a standardized form of Latin for the Church. His work gave Latin a breath of life, transforming it into a language of faith and theology.

Is Vulgar Latin a Misnomer?

The very term "Vulgar Latin" is a much more recent invention than the language it describes. Many modern linguists consider the term to be too broad. Vulgar Latin is an umbrella term -- it wasn't standardized, nor was it a single dialect. Instead, these were regional dialects of spoken Latin that would eventually diverge over time through distinct changes. Eventually, in different areas of Europe, the dialects became so different that speakers from one region could no longer understand those from another.

"Vulgar" also implies that the spoken language was only used by commoners. In reality, it was the everyday language while Classical Latin was the literary standard. Most people likely spoke in the common language, while only a select few knew the written language. Ancient Roman authors were aware that people spoke differently from how they wrote. They used terms like sermo vulgaris to refer to the informal "speech of the common people." In the Renaissance, Italian scholars theorized that Romance languages were descended from a corrupted form of Classical Latin. But what these scholars viewed as "corruption" was simply the beautiful process of linguistic evolution.