Rethinking Heroism: Resilience and Integrity in Sophocles’ Ajax

Society’s understanding of what makes someone a “hero” has fluctuated throughout time. The ancients defined heroism by extraordinary abilities and achievements, regardless of whether actions were morally aligned. Gregory Nagy, a professor of classics at Harvard University and specialist in Homeric poetry, has described this as a system centered on the pursuit of kléos, meaning glory or “immortal fame” (Nagy, 1979, p. viii). Conversely, modern understandings of heroism often prioritize moral courage and emotional intelligence. Dr. Allison and Dr. Goethals at the University of Richmond note that “one of the defining traits of heroes is that they put the common good… ahead of their personal concerns” (Allison and Goethals, 2011, p. 5). With society’s understanding of heroism shifting over time, modern standards of heroism are less applicable to ancient heroes with fundamentally different values. The resulting tension of this misalignment can be seen in Achilles, who is defined by his pursuit of kléos, even when at the cost of nóstos, or “a return to his home” (Nagy, 1979, p. viii). This can also be identified in Ajax, as depicted in Homer’s Iliad, who is an Achaean warrior possessing strength second only to Achilles. While the Iliad ends before the death of Achilles, Sophocles’ Aias, also titled Ajax, focuses primarily on the aftermath of Achilles’ death, when his armor is given to Odysseus instead of Ajax. Sophocles, writing centuries after Homer had supposedly composed his epics, interprets this competition as an identity crisis. Ajax falls in between these definitions of heroism, his character exposing a contradiction in the modern definition of heroism. Under modern constraints, Ajax cannot be easily classified as a hero, but instead of disqualifying him from the status of a hero altogether, Sophocles’ Ajax reveals that the modern ideals of resilience and integrity can become incompatible under pressure.

Upon first glance, it seems as though Ajax cannot fulfill the modern requirements of a hero. Sophocles’ play presents Ajax as a man driven by his wounded pride: enraged after he was denied Achilles’ armor, Ajax determines that he will murder the Greek commanders who wronged him. His plan is impeded by Athena, who drives him to a level of delusion in which he slaughters livestock, mistakenly believing them to be his enemies. When he returns to a state of clarity, Ajax is primarily disgusted and devastated by the extreme humiliation and shame he had faced, rather than the violence as one would expect. The realization that he has been made a fool is overwhelming. This reaction is a result of a value system in which kléos is of more importance than moral accountability. Ajax’s words reflect his commitment to honor, as he declares: “Honor in life / or in death: if a man is born noble / he must have one or the other” (Sophocles, trans. Golder and Pevear, 1999, lines 530–532). By the modern standards of heroism, which emphasize morality and self-reflection, Ajax appears more like a man unable to cope with loss than a hero. His unwillingness to accept his loss of kléos reveals that he is unable to bear his public identity collapsing.

However, this interpretation of Ajax as failing modern standards of heroism cannot fully hold when considering Ajax’s own reasoning. His famous “deception speech” shows a level of self-awareness that makes it difficult to simply label him as prideful. In this moment, Ajax reflects on the inevitable nature of change, observing that “winter yields to the rich growth / of summer… even all-overwhelming sleep / binds only to let go” (Sophocles, trans. Golder and Pevear, 1999, lines 744–746, 750–751). Ajax’s recognition here suggests that he understands that transformation is necessary. Despite his understanding of change at a conceptual level, his actions still move toward finality as he isolates himself and prepares for the irreversible act of suicide.

This moment aligns strongly with modern explanations of moral injury. As psychiatrist Jonathan Shay argues, trauma stems from a “betrayal of what’s right,” inflicting lasting damage on a person’s moral identity (Shay, 1994, p. 3). Ajax’s madness and the ensuing humiliation reflect such a schism between how he understands himself and what he has become. This explains Ajax’s response as a belief that his identity cannot survive this irreparable situation. Similarly, in The Theater of War, Bryan Doerries shows that ancient tragedies continue to connect with audiences today because they verbalize experiences of suffering that are difficult to articulate otherwise; veterans have consistently identified with Ajax during performances of the tragedy (Doerries, 2015). Thus, Ajax’s sense of clarity, even in the face of destruction, is his courage. He accepts his situation without delusion.

In the second half of the play, the question of heroism is diverted from Ajax himself onto the community who had judged him. Following his death, Agamemnon and Menelaus propose denying Ajax burial rights, arguing that he was both disgraced and a danger to the remaining Greeks. This is significant because, as Sophocles explores in another work, Antigone, burial meant recognizing one’s humanity in the ancient world, and to deny burial is to deny that recognition entirely. Conversely, Odysseus defends Ajax and his right to dignity, arguing that “To strike / at a brave man when he is dead / can never be just, no matter / how much you hate him” (Sophocles, trans. Golder and Pevear, 1999, lines 1516–1519). His argument shifts the focus of the situation from Ajax’s humiliating failure to the community’s responsibility, suggesting that Ajax’s dignity is dependent on the community recognizing his past greatness, as shown in his description of Ajax as “brave”. This makes the question at hand what the community owes Ajax rather than what he did. In this way, the scene redefines heroism as a collective responsibility, as even when dignity is acknowledged, it cannot undo what has already been done.

This reframing of the situation applies to modern contexts too. If heroism depends on what a community owes to its members, then the treatment of those who fail, like Ajax, is just as important as the actions that put them in that position in the first place. By defending Ajax in his final moments, Odysseus insists that his past kléos still holds weight even after his descent into madness. In doing so, the play reminds the audience not to define individuals solely by their lowest point.

This conflict, between resilience and integrity, highlights a deeper problem with modern definitions of heroism. While modern definitions of heroism often place emphasis on resilience, they leave little place for those who cannot endure; Ajax’s inability to adapt makes him a failure. At the same time, his commitment to honor is a form of integrity that makes it difficult to disqualify him. Under modern definitions, Ajax cannot be defined as a hero entirely, not because he does not possess the qualities which modern society finds important, but rather because he does not fit into a framework that demands both adaptability and commitment to principle. Ajax is among the heroes who can be partially understood as heroes under modern standards, albeit imperfectly, as the qualities required of modern heroes cannot always coexist. Sophocles’ portrayal of Ajax shows that the qualities most admired in heroes can lead to their destruction, ultimately exposing the contradictions within modern heroism and suggesting that society reconsider what it demands of those it calls “heroes.”

Bibliography

Allison, S.T. and Goethals, G.R. (2011) Heroes: What They Do and Why We Need Them. New York: Oxford University Press.

Doerries, B. (2015) The Theater of War: What Ancient Greek Tragedies Can Teach Us Today. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Nagy, G. (1979) The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Shay, J. (1994) Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character. New York: Scribner.

Sophocles (1999) Aias. Translated by H. Golder and R. Pevear. New York: Oxford University Press.